Bhutan Journal of Research and Development
The Bhutan Journal of Research and Development (BJRD) is the publication of the Royal Univeristy of Bhutan through the Office of the Vice Chancellor (OVC). Established in 2012, the journal is published biannually, with issues released in May and November. BJRD aims to promote and advance high-quality research and scholarship across education, humanities, social and natural sciences. The journal welcomes a diverse range of scholarly contributions, including theoretical and empirical research papers, review articles, research notes, short communications, and book reviews that contribute to knowledge generation and inform policy. The journal upholds rigorous academic standards through a blind peer-review process and encourages interdisciplinary scholarship that addresses contemporary issues, emerging challenges, and innovative practices relevant to Bhutan and the broader global context. Its primary, though not exclusive, audience includes researchers, academicians, policymakers, graduate students, practitioners, and all others interested in research and scholarly inquiry related to Bhutan.
All articles published in BJRD are registered under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License unless otherwise mentioned. BJRD allows unrestricted use of articles in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
An Analysis of Experiences and Operational Challenges of E-Commerce in Bhutan: Perspectives of Management Students and Registered Online Retailers
E-commerce, driven by the growth of the internet, is gaining momentum in Bhutan; however, its research remains focused on consumer satisfaction, with little attention to retailers. This mixed-methods study addresses this issue by analysing survey data of 387 management students and semi-structured interviews with six registered retailers. Thus, the work takes into account the perspectives of student consumers of Bhutanese e-commerce platforms on the premise of Oliver’s Expectation Confirmation Theory. Results showed aggregate service ratings remained above the 3.00 benchmark, though item-level analysis revealed significant technology performance gaps (time-saving: M = 3.84; ease of use: M = 3.87), service reliability (accuracy: M = 3.57), and product quality (absence of defects: M=3.17). Significant platform-specific exploratory associations were observed between product defects (p = 0.020), location constraints (p = 0.032), and site trust (p = 0.026). Findings reveal that customers valued convenience while expressing concerns over refund systems and data security. In parallel, retailers highlighted challenges such as adapting to advanced technologies, inconsistency in systems, and maintaining customer trust. These findings provide initial evidence on the dual perspectives of potential Bhutanese e-commerce consumers and retailers, emphasising the need to strengthen Bhutan’s emerging digital economy.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kinley Chimi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Understanding Academics’ Psychological Wellbeing: A Case Study
This study examines the psychological wellbeing (PWB) of academics at Paro College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan, using a seven-dimensional framework: physical, social, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, occupational, and environmental wellbeing. A qualitative case study approach was employed, with data collected through semi-structured interviews with faculty members (n = 21) and analysis of institutional policy documents. Findings indicate uneven levels of wellbeing across dimensions, with no area receiving consistently strong institutional support. Key factors influencing wellbeing include workload, job demands, recognition, work-life balance, and stress. While spiritual, physical, and environmental wellbeing are moderately supported, intellectual and occupational dimensions require greater attention. The study also identifies a gap between policy commitments and their implementation, alongside limited structured support for academic staff. These findings highlight the need for clearer operationalisation of wellbeing and stronger alignment between policy intent and institutional practice. Additionally, the study contributes to existing literature on academic wellbeing and offers insights for higher education institutions seeking to improve working conditions and foster a supportive academic environment.
Copyright (c) 2026 Deki C Gyamtso, Ugyen Tshomo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Dynamic Responses of Riparian Vegetation and Macroinvertebrates to Riverine Ecosystems in Dhurchhu and Choekhorchhu, Bumthang
A bioassessment study using macroinvertebrates and physicochemical parameters was conducted in Bumthang to compare water quality between Dhurchhu and Choekhorchhu. Systematic random sampling was used to place plots at 150 meters (m) intervals along rivers, and macroinvertebrates were collected using the kick-net method, then counted and identified. Water quality parameters were measured in the field and laboratory and compared with WHO Standards, Ambient Water Quality Criteria, and Bhutan’s Drinking Water Quality Standards. A total of 2,272 macroinvertebrates from 24 families, 9 orders, and one water mite genus were recorded. Plecoptera (n = 1,158) was dominant, while Anisopzygoptera (n = 13) was least abundant. Run habitats had the highest abundance (n = 827) and cascade the lowest (n = 243). Kruskal–Wallis tests showed no significant differences among habitats in Dhurchhu (H(3) = 1.96, p > 0.05) and Choekhorchhu (H(3) = 2.99, p > 0.05). HKHbios and EPT indices indicated good water quality, associated with dominant forest cover (3,271.14 ha) within a 200 m riparian buffer. Increasing sampling points, field verification, and performing seasonal assessments are recommended to determine the effects of vegetation on water quality and macroinvertebrate diversity.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yangchen Lhamo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effectiveness of Nearpod and Edpuzzle as Technology-Enhanced Learning Platforms in Teaching Electricity Concepts to Class Ten Students
This study explored how technology-enhanced platforms, Nearpod and EdPuzzle, support student engagement, conceptual understanding, and motivation while learning electricity concepts in class ten. Using a quasi-experimental design, data were collected through pre- and post-tests, surveys, and focus group discussions. A sample of 53 students was divided into two experimental groups to compare the effectiveness of the Nearpod or EdPuzzle tool in physics lessons. The findings indicated that both tools improved learning outcomes, but in different ways. Nearpod’s real-time quizzes, polls, and other interactive features fostered engagement and interactivity, while EdPuzzle supported independent learning and critical thinking. Nevertheless, rather than using the tools as competing platforms, they are most effective when used in a complementary way. The study highlights that aligning digital tools with learning objectives optimises students’ understanding and engagement in physics. For teachers, EdPuzzle can be used for pre-class learning and Nearpod for in-class interactive instruction, aligning with contemporary STEM pedagogy. Therefore, relevant stakeholders should invest in infrastructure and teacher training to support effective technology-enhanced learning.
Copyright (c) 2026 Dorji Tenzin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Beyond Global North Models: Centring Bhutan’s Home-Grown Place-Based Education
Place-based education has gained global recognition as an approach that connects learning to local ecological, cultural, and community contexts. In Bhutan, place-based education was introduced in 2008 with support from the Teton Science Schools. While these initiatives introduced pedagogical tools, they also reflect reliance on progressive education traditions inspired by Dewey and Global North frameworks. Such reliance risks overlooking Bhutan’s traditions of place-based learning embedded in agricultural rituals, Buddhist environmental ethics, spiritual ecology, oral traditions, and students’ encounters with nature. Drawing on an ethnographic case study conducted at a Bhutanese Middle Secondary School, this paper examines tensions between schooling and ecological knowledge through the lenses of the distinction between thin and thick knowledge, and between useful and really useful knowledge. The study draws on in-depth interviews with 12 teachers, 10 classroom observations, informal conversations with students over three months, and an analysis of relevant educational policy documents. This study, thus, develops an argument for a Bhutanised model of place-based education aimed at strengthening ongoing efforts to implement Education for Gross National Happiness.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sonam Dorji, Rick Flowers https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Generative Artificial Intelligence and Universities
Generative Artificial Intelligence is reshaping how people learn, work, and create—and universities sit at the centre of this upheaval. GenAI is double-edged: it can facilitate fake learning, yet it can also deepen true learning, spark creativity, and strengthen academic integrity if used well. The implications are both threatening and potentially transformative. Without redesign, many universities risk rapid decline. But collapse is not inevitable: by embracing co-intelligence—effective human-AI collaboration—universities can flourish. This paper offers concrete recommendations and two brief GenAI prompts that illustrate how learning and research can be meaningfully enhanced.
Copyright (c) 2025 Robert Klitgaard https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Unpacking TFGBV in Bhutan: A Qualitative Study of Impact and Experience
Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence (TFGBV) is an emerging global concern, particularly in digitally evolving societies like Bhutan. This qualitative study investigates the lived experiences, manifestations, and consequences of TFGBV through the lens of Digital Sociology. Data were collected through interviews and focus group discussions with 54 participants, including survivors, educators, service providers, and institutional stakeholders. The research reveals a spectrum of abuse, including cyberbullying, image-based violence, sextortion, and gendered hate speech. These acts are often intensified by anonymity, cultural stigma, and limited digital literacy. The study highlights significant psychological, educational, and social impacts, especially among Gen Z, whose digital immersion makes them uniquely vulnerable yet potentially powerful agents of change. The findings call for culturally responsive legal reforms, trauma-informed support systems, and multi-sectoral collaboration. This research contributes to the global discourse on gender equity and digital safety, offering actionable insights for policy, education, and advocacy.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kezang Sherab, Ugyen Tshomo, Dechen Tshomo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Discourses of Climate Change in the Bhutan Himalayas: Research Trends, Adaptation Funding and Policy Options
Bhutan is one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the eastern Himalayas due to the interaction of biophysical impacts, sociocultural narratives, and policy responses. This study analyses climate change research and discourse in Bhutan by examining research trends, adaptation funding mechanisms, and policy responses that shape national resilience strategies. It draws on a literature review using Scopus database searches, with attention to journal subject areas, institutional affiliations, and research output. The study also synthesises empirical data on demographic vulnerabilities and climate hazards across the most vulnerable Dzongkhags in Bhutan. Findings indicate that Bhutan faces multiple climate-related hazards and risks, with eastern and southern Dzongkhags exhibiting the highest vulnerability. However, research activities remain disproportionately concentrated in western regions. Although Bhutan’s small population and geographic size have not limited research productivity, local funding constraints are often offset by external agencies; however, such research funding is not consistently utilised in the vulnerable region where projects are implemented. The study underscores the role of climate narratives in shaping adaptation priorities and access to funding, offering insights for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in Bhutan and beyond.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr Om Katel, Ms Anooja Nair, Ms Chogyel Wangmo, Ms Ugyen Yangchen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Attributes of Bhutanese Conifer Timber for Optimal Application in the Building Industry
Timber and the building industry present a mutually beneficial opportunity. Timber provides a viable means to decarbonise the building sector, while the building industry offers a scalable pathway for high-value application of timber resources. Rich in forests, Bhutan is well placed to harness these benefits from the use of timber in the building industry. However, timber exhibits great variability in its properties. Its use as a reliable building material requires a systematic characterisation process to ensure safety and enable optimal utilisation. This paper presents the first-ever findings on the key properties and attributes of two species of fir and hemlock. The physical attributes of knots, expressed as the ratio (tKAR) of the largest knot diameter to the width of the samples and rate of growth (RoG) as the average width of the growth rings, were recorded. The density and bending strength (MoR) were then determined in accordance with the EN 408 and EN 384 standards. The maximum tKAR for fir was 0.5 and 0.6 for hemlock. The largest RoG for fir was 5.0mm and for hemlock 2.5mm. Characteristic (5th percentile) density of 362.84kg/m3 and 462.5kg/m3, and MoR of 14MPa and 7MPa were obtained for the fir and hemlock samples, respectively.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tshewang Nidup https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Digital Mindfulness in Tourism: Insights from Australia and Strategies for Bhutan’s Nature-Based Experiences
This paper examines the phenomenon of digital mindfulness in tourism and the role of technology in enhancing travel experiences. Drawing on insights from Noosa Heads, Australia, it proposes a Digital Mindfulness Index (DMI) for Bhutan’s nature-based tourism, guided by Gross National Happiness (GNH) principles to support sustainable, culturally sensitive, and technology-balanced experiences. It addresses the tension between digital technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the risks of technostress and cognitive overload. The study, conducted at Noosa Heads with 104 participants using qualitative semi-structured interviews, to investigate the effects of constant digital contact on tourists, assesses the demand for mindful technology, and explores strategies to integrate digital mindfulness into tourism activities. Findings indicate that while travellers appreciate technologies that enhance experiences, they also desire features that reduce distractions and stress. These insights are relevant to Bhutan, where GNH principles can inform mindful, ethical tourism practices that promote well-being, sustainability, and cultural preservation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Madura https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Factors Influencing Women Teachers’ Aspirations for School Leadership Positions: A Mixed-Methods Study in Thimphu District
In Bhutan, women constitute a significant portion of the teaching workforce but remain underrepresented in public school leadership roles. This mixed-methods study explored the factors influencing women teachers’ aspirations for school leadership positions across nine schools in Thimphu District. Using stratified random sampling, data were collected from 82 female teachers through surveys, and seven of them participated in semi-structured interviews. The findings, guided by the study’s theoretical framework, demonstrated that women’s leadership aspirations were shaped by interrelated personal, institutional, and socio-cultural dimensions. While personal motivation, confidence, and proactive leadership development emerged as internal drivers, institutional barriers such as inadequate mentorship, gender-biased promotion criteria, and limited support systems, along with socio-cultural expectations related to caregiving and traditional gender roles, constrained women’s ambitions. The study concludes that advancing women’s leadership aspirations requires systemic reforms, including gender-sensitive policies, leadership training, mentorship programmes, and supportive institutional environments. These insights hold important implications for policymakers and school leaders committed to fostering gender equity in Bhutan’s education system.
Copyright (c) 2025 Deki Dema https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Teacher Attitudes and Perceptions Toward Technology Integration in Bhutanese Classrooms
his study aimed to analyse the technology use by Bhutanese teachers, their attitudes and perceptions toward the integration of technology in teaching. It sought to determine the impact of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technological knowledge on Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)–the conceptual framework for technology integration in teaching-learning. It employed a quantitative non-experimental correlational survey design. The data were collected through a web-based cross-sectional survey from a total of 204 teachers from 19 schools in Thimphu. The findings revealed that while teachers used a variety of devices to support their teaching, Bhutanese teachers rarely utilised web-based applications. The analysis of teachers’ attitudes and perceptions toward technology integration showed a combined mean score of 1.74 (± 0.77) on the given scale. A total of 94 (46%) respondents held a negative attitude, 69 (34%) were moderately inclined, and 41 (20%) expressed a positive attitude toward technology integration. The path analyses showed a significant direct relationship between content knowledge and technological knowledge to technological pedagogical content knowledge. However, no empirical support was found for pedagogical knowledge. This study highlights a timely and comprehensive national professional development programme and advocates for the establishment of a robust ICT infrastructure in Bhutanese Schools.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tashi Dawa, Mr. Sonam Dhendup https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Professional Learning Communities in Age-Mixed Schools
This study examines the professional learning community (PLC) of teachers within a network of three small rural primary age-mixed schools, which organised teaching structures (SAMOT) in Norway. Over the course of one year, the network conducted four collaborative workshops, which cultivated a shared responsibility for student well-being and development, and built mutual reliance among teachers. Trust and strong professional collaboration emerged as central dynamics, supported by a shared values-based perspective typical of small rural schools. The study tests the hypothesis that cross-SAMOT collaboration enhances PLC development, positing that teachers benefit most when they work with peers from other SAMOTs. The research question is: How can a SAMOT network foster the development of a PLC? Using a qualitative case study with 17 teachers across the three schools and data from group interviews, findings indicate that the SAMOT network strengthens teacher collaboration and mutual professional learning, while elevating emphasis on ongoing professional development. The key contribution is that PLCs in age-mixed, small-school contexts are reinforced when schools join cross-SAMOT networks, enabling shared responsibility, deeper trust, and an expanded network-based focus on professional growth.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bodil Svendsen, Mette Meidell https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Spatio-Temporal Profiling of Aquatic Biodiversity in Stream Habitats in Gelephu Mindfulness City
Understanding aquatic biodiversity distribution across spatial and seasonal gradients is fundamental to evidence-based ecological planning, especially in rapidly transforming landscapes. This study presents a spatio-temporal profiling of fish, macroinvertebrate communities, and water quality across stream habitats in the proposed Gelephu Mindfulness City. Georeferenced aquatic plots were systematically distributed (200 m transects at 1 km intervals), capturing ecological variability during monsoon (August 2024) and post-monsoon (November 2024) seasons. Fish sampling employed cast nets, electrofishing, and seine nets, while macroinvertebrates were collected using D-frame kick nets and mesh-based scooping. Water quality profiling included DO, turbidity, TDS, pH, temperature, and flow velocity. Analytical procedures incorporated Shannon-Weaver diversity indices, species richness, and evenness, interpreted using multivariate ecological statistics in R. A total of 35 fish species (14 families) and 14 macroinvertebrate taxa (7 orders) were recorded. Post-monsoon sampling revealed higher fish abundance (N=849 vs. N=282), while macroinvertebrate diversity peaked during the monsoon (H’ = 1.90). Biodiversity patterns were strongly associated with hydrological gradients, substratum diversity, and habitat complexity. The findings inform ecological buffer zoning and season-sensitive infrastructure design, contributing to Bhutan’s biodiversity strategy and nature-positive urban development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ugyen Dorji, Sonam Moktan, Ugyen Tenzin, Laxmi Sagar, Rinchen Dorji, Rupesh Subedi, Benath Rai https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Barriers to technology integration in Bhutanese secondary science classrooms
Integrating digital technology in education is considered an indispensable tool for 21st-century classrooms; however, its use in the Bhutanese classrooms is in its infancy. This study investigated the barriers to integrating technology in the Bhutanese secondary science classrooms. Informed by Ertmer’s framework of barriers to technology integration, the study employed a sequential mixed-methods approach. The study recruited secondary science teachers (n = 135) teaching grades nine to twelve through snowball sampling from 42 secondary schools nationwide. The data for the study were collected using an online questionnaire and virtual one-on-one interviews. The study revealed that limited technology resources, such as computers and reliable internet access, as well as a lack of formal training for teachers, pose significant barriers to the integration of technology in secondary science classrooms. The study recommends that the Ministry of Education and Skill Development (MoESD) eliminate the identified barriers to facilitate the effective integration of technology, thereby enhancing students’ learning outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Norbu Wangdi, Harry Kanasa, Harry Kanasa, Eun-Ji Amy Kim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Strengthening Digital Defences: Evaluating the Impact of Cybersecurity Awareness Workshops Among First-Year Engineering Students in Bhutan
With Bhutan’s rapid digital transformation, cyber threats have increased, creating an urgent need for cybersecurity education among young adults. This study evaluates the effectiveness of cybersecurity awareness workshops delivered to first-year students across three technical colleges under the Royal University of Bhutan. Using a quasi-experimental design, pre- and post-workshop surveys were administered to 300 students to measure changes in awareness and understanding. Pre-workshop findings showed that only 34.6% of students had high cybersecurity awareness, and more than 70% had never attended related training. Post-workshop results indicated substantial improvement: 81.4% rated the workshop as effective or very effective, and 76.9% felt confident in practising cybersecurity measures. Students demonstrated enhanced practical knowledge, increased awareness of cyber threats, better familiarity with tools, and stronger recognition of personal online responsibilities. They also valued the real-life examples and interactive activities. The study highlights the need to integrate structured cybersecurity education into Bhutanese higher education and national digital strategies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tashi Yangchen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Reimagining post-pandemic workplace culture to foster psychological well-being in Bhutan
In the wake of the pandemic, Bhutan initiated a series of reforms with the vision of creating an Enlightened Entrepreneurial Bureaucracy (E2B). The unprecedented experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic presented an opportunity to promote psychological well-being in the workplace through heightened health and psychosocial support, offering a chance for reflection to pursue this new vision. Accordingly, the objective of the paper is to reflect on the initiatives taken in response to increased pandemic-related emotional distress in the workplace, with the recognition of the centrality of organisational culture to innovation and productivity. A qualitative approach based on an intra-method convergent design was employed, utilising data collected from interviews and published studies. Results showed that while the pandemic has highlighted the importance of psychological well-being, post-pandemic workplace practices have not yet fully adopted these lessons. Therefore, to contribute to the vision of E2B, the study offers specific, actionable suggestions for workplace policies and practices to promote an organisational culture that fosters psychological well-being. Deliberative interventions to replace complacency with meritocracy and eliminate hostile workplace environments to foster trust, lifelong learning, and employee autonomy are highlighted. Additionally, the paper aims to contribute to the broader discussion on promoting well-being in the post-pandemic era.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kinley Rinchen, Vicki Banham, Sonam Pelden https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Hydrogeological Assessment of Drying Lakes and Restoration Strategies: A Case Study from Dagapela, Bhutan
Bhutan has many drying lakes across the country, underscoring the urgent need for a coordinated framework to guide rehabilitation and long-term restoration. This study focused on five lakes that provide drinking and irrigation water to the lower communities of Gozhi, Dagapela, Bhutan. Since lakes often serve as spring recharge zones, restoring them can also rejuvenate downstream springs. Lake restoration is, therefore, vital not only for sustaining local water supplies but also for supporting the economy and environment. Hydrogeological mapping revealed that the Jorpokhari lakes are interconnected, meaning that reviving one lake could benefit the others. However, one lake in this system has completely dried, and its rejuvenation would be costly. Most of the lakes are surrounded by dense vegetation, which has expanded in recent years, and are alkaline with pH >7.0. Restoration strategies suitable for these lakes include clearing catchment areas, rerouting surface runoff, deepening or dredging the lake bed, and harvesting biomass, as many are infested with Schoenoplectus mucronatus sedges. For Dungkhar Tsho Lake, located below a road, specific recommendations include constructing sedimentation basins and gravel beds to filter runoff. This paper provides detailed descriptions of each lake and suggests practical interventions to guide their restoration.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jambay Jambay https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Compassion in Practice: Perspectives of Bhutanese Primary Science Teachers
Compassion is increasingly recognised as essential for creating safe and inclusive learning environments. In Bhutan, where compassion is deeply embedded in cultural and spiritual values, there is a growing need to strengthen teachers’ capacity to integrate compassionate practices. This study explores how primary science teachers enact compassion in their classrooms and provides practical models to inform teacher professional development. Using a sequential mixed methods approach, the study surveyed 201 primary science teachers in Bhutan and conducted in-depth interviews with ten teachers. The survey provided an overview of compassionate practices, while interviews offered deeper insights into how these practices are enacted. Six key strategies emerged: role modelling compassion, practising self-compassion, using compassionate speech, listening empathetically, understanding students’ life stories, and establishing caring classroom rules. Data show teachers create emotionally safe classrooms and foster positive relationships, with mindful compassion through presence, non-judgment, and intention central to building trust and connectedness in Bhutanese classrooms. The findings highlight that compassionate teaching is practical and can be developed through reflective practice, mindfulness, peer learning, and professional support. These insights can guide teacher training, mentorship, and reflective tools to integrate compassion and mindfulness as core pedagogical skills.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jambay Lhamo, Dr Nadya Rizk, Adjunct Associate Professor , Adjunct Associate Professor https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring Equity and Inclusion using Universal Design for Learning in Teacher Education at Samtse College of Education
The study investigates how teacher educators in Samtse College of Education (SCE) conceptualise and implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in teacher training. Employing a mixed-methods approach, data were gathered from 18 educators, out of which nine were engaged in semi-structured interviews and class observations. Findings indicate moderate conceptual knowledge of UDL among teacher educators, but high commitment towards diversity and learner inclusivity. Strengths were noted in providing multiple means of representing content, but a wide variability existed in providing multiple means of performing, expressing, and personalising. Significant barriers were scarce resources, large class sizes, and lockstep curricula, which restricted full implementation of UDL principles. Although training sessions were provided, the participants rated them as too theoretical and removed from classroom settings. Despite these problems, teacher educators were positive regarding the promise of UDL to enhance student engagement, equity, and pedagogy. The research highlights the importance of institutional support in the form of constant professional development, increased use of resources, and systemic dedication to inclusive practice.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kinley https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Building the Mindfulness City: Lessons from Special Economic Zones
Bhutan is building a new city, Gelephu Mindfulness City (GMC), with the goal of leapfrogging into a high-tech service economy, while preserving and promoting its cultural heritage of Vajrayana Buddhism. GMC–as a Special Economic Zone (SEZ)/Special Administrative Region (SAR)–will pursue a new model of urban development, ensuring a balance between economic prosperity and spiritual well-being. This paper is a perspective article that draws lessons from SEZs in China, Singapore, Dubai, and beyond to inform the development of the GMC in Bhutan. The paper identifies key factors – location, infrastructure, regulatory environment, human capital development, and integration with global and local value chains – that will drive the success of GMC, while requiring Bhutan to address the challenges of youth unemployment, brain drain, limited domestic savings, and an underdeveloped financial system. The paper concludes that GMC would benefit from a comprehensive needs assessment and strategic focus, based on global best practices, to realise its full potential as a new model of urban development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tai Young-Taft, Maya Rashid https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Threads of Devotion: Interweaving Spaces, Practices, and Relationships in Bhutanese Buddhism
This article analyses the intersection of space, religious practice, and identity in Bhutanese Buddhism through a case study in Thimphu. Drawing on eight months of ethnographic fieldwork, including participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and textual analysis, the article explores how individuals navigate intersecting ontological spaces in everyday life. Adopting an essentialist stance and an “ethnographic sensibility”, the research explores porous boundaries between Buddhist and Bon elements, lay and monastic communities, and sacred and profane space. The findings show that root practices such as the maintenance of household shrines (Chosham), visiting public temples (Lhakhang), and circumambulation (Kora) construct a stratified Buddhist identity, simultaneously context-sensitive and experientially rooted. Through the description of how dharma teachings and bodily devotion become intertwined in the daily life of Bhutan, the article identifies the resilience of Bhutanese Buddhism amidst accelerated social change.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tiatemsu Longkumer, Miss, Miss https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Determinants of Insomnia Severity in Bhutan: Demographic and Mental Health Factors
Insomnia is a growing health concern, yet little is known about its predictors in the Bhutanese context. This research studied demographic, behavioural, and psychological factors associated with insomnia severity during the COVID-19 lockdown. Thus, a cross-sectional survey was conducted among 534 Bhutanese individuals using the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analyses were performed. The results of the Correlation analysis showed significant positive associations between insomnia severity and depression, anxiety, stress and phone usage. However, age was negatively correlated with ISI. This was further confirmed by multiple regression analysis, which revealed that depression (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), anxiety (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), and phone usage (β = 0.16, p = 0.001) significantly predicted higher insomnia severity, while age (β = - 0.14, p = 0.001) was a negative predictor. Stress, relationship and employment status were not significant in predicting insomnia. The model explained 41% of the variance in insomnia severity. Thus, psychological distress and excessive phone use increase insomnia severity, whereas older age appears protective.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sonam Zam, Ugyen Lhendup, Karma Tenzin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Enhancing 12th Grade Students’ Reading Comprehension of The Play “The Merchant of Venice” by applying Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
This study explored the efficacy of integrating Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles to enhance the reading comprehension of Bhutanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners studying William Shakespeare's play, “The Merchant of Venice.” Lesson activities were meticulously designed to align with UDL principles, empowering students with the autonomy to choose their tools, methods, and avenues for exploration and learning. Additionally, students were given the freedom to present their understanding in formats comfortable to them for assessment. The study employed a quantitative research design involving 12th-grade students from a high school in Bhutan for this intervention. While the experimental group received UDL intervention, three control groups did not. The findings suggest that implementing UDL strategies can significantly enhance students’ reading comprehension of the play, “The Merchant of Venice,” highlighting its potential as a pedagogical approach to enhance reading comprehension in EFL contexts, recommending educators in similar EFL contexts to adapt UDL in their classrooms.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kinley Pem Kinley Pem https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effectiveness of an Open Educational Resources Module on Work, Energy, and Power in Enhancing Physics Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge
This study examined the effectiveness of an Open Educational Resources (OER) Module on Work, Energy, and Power in enhancing physics teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). A mixed-methods approach involving pre- and post-tests, lesson plans, and reflections was used. A total of 36 teachers from 32 schools participated. Data were analysed using Cohen’s d, paired-samples t-test, means, and standard deviations. The findings indicated that the OER module significantly improved teachers’ PCK. In the Learner category, the module was effective in helping teachers recognise students’ prior misconceptions but had limited impact on identifying students’ specific difficulties. In the Content category, the module helped teachers explain teaching goals, although it had a smaller effect on deepening their understanding of the nature of science and connecting ideas across grades. For Teaching and Learning, the module enhanced teachers’ ability to select instructional strategies that supported students in diverse ways, but had less effect on improving teachers’ assessment strategies. Analysis of lesson plans and reflections showed that the module helped teachers build on students’ prior knowledge, fostering higher-order thinking, and implement active learning strategies. However, it was less effective in addressing misconceptions and promoting inclusion and equity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ugyen, Karma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Enhancing Grade Six Students’ Reading Comprehension through Reciprocal Reading Instruction (RRI)
This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Reciprocal Reading Instruction (RRI) in improving reading comprehension among Sixth-Grade students. A quasi-experimental research design was employed using one class of Sixth-Grade students of Zunglen Primary School. The sample group consisted of one section of 19 grade six students selected through a purposive sampling technique. Eight lessons were conducted over 10 weeks, incorporating four cycles of RRI. The first two weeks focused on familiarisation with RRI through teacher-led discussions, while the remaining eight weeks were dedicated to student-led discussions, with the teacher serving as a facilitator. The reading comprehension of the students was measured through a reading comprehension test (pretest and posttest) and quizzes. The test scores were analysed using a sample t-test statistical approach. The results revealed that the students’ scores improved significantly after the intervention. The nature of RRI, which involved predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarising, fostered a distinctive form of student engagement in reading. Further, explicit instruction of these strategies, along with scaffolding, collaboration, and the use of reading materials, contributed to enhanced reading comprehension. Therefore, the results suggest that RRI enhanced Sixth-Grade students' reading comprehension in this study.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nima Gyeltshen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Code-Switching as a Pedagogical Tool in the Research Methods Classroom: Undergraduate Students’ Attitude
Code-switching has been predominantly viewed as a barrier to second-language acquisition. However, its role in non-language tertiary classrooms in Bhutan has remained under-examined. This study explored undergraduate students’ perceptions of code-switching between Dzongkha and English in a Research Methods classroom. Data were collected from first-year B.A. in Bhutanese and Himalayan Studies students at the College of Language and Culture Studies through questionnaires (N=103), semi-structured interviews (n=10), and researcher diary notes maintained throughout the semester. The findings were triangulated to develop an in-depth picture of the phenomenon. Students perceived code-switching as an effective way of understanding complex research concepts, making the classroom environment inclusive, and fostering engagement. However, unregulated use of code-switching can jeopardise the status of English as a primary mode of instruction, thereby reducing students’ exposure to English academic discourse. The study provides an insight into pedagogy and language policy in Bhutanese higher education and implies consequences for balanced bilingual practices, proposing recommendations for balanced language use in higher education.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jigme Dorji, Jigme, Chencho https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Learning Preferences (VARK) and Study Approaches (ASSIST) of Middle Secondary School Students in Relation to their Academic Performance in Science
This cross-sectional descriptive survey investigated the learning preferences and study approaches of 259 students from grades IV to X using standardised VARK and ASSIST questionnaires. The majority of students demonstrated multimodal or quadrimodal learning preferences and adopted deep approaches to studying. No significant gender differences were observed in either learning preferences or study approaches in science. Chi-square test indicated no association between learning preferences and study approaches; however, a greater proportion of high achievers exhibited multimodal preferences combined with a deep approach. The Kruskal-Wallis H test revealed no statistically significant differences in academic performance across categories of learning preferences and study approaches. Nonetheless, the Epsilon squared test suggested a small association, with deep approaches linked to higher academic performance. These results highlight the importance of acknowledging individual differences and modifying teaching strategies to accommodate a range of learning requirements. So, educators should tailor the curriculum, teaching strategies, and activities to accommodate these differences, ultimately enhancing students’ academic success.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sushma Pradhan, Cheki Wangmo, Sonam Dorji T, Norbu Wangdi, Ugyen Lhendup https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Impact of Ability Grouping on Eighth-Grade Students’ Mathematics Achievement
This study investigated the impacts of ability grouping on eighth-grade students’ mathematics achievement at Phordung Lower Secondary School. A convergent parallel mixed methods design was employed, where quantitative and qualitative data were collected concurrently from 54 eighth-grade students (29 males, 25 females). The quantitative component included a standardised test, and the qualitative component included students’ opinions collected through a focus group discussion and observation notes. Quantitative data were analysed using the Kruskal-Wallis Test, followed by the Tukey Honestly Significant Difference post hoc test, and qualitative data were analysed using an inductive content analysis approach. Although all ability groups showed gains in their test scores, high-ability students outperformed the lower- and mid-ability students. Students’ positive attitudes toward same-ability grouping, as evidenced by their focus group discussions, were linked to gains in test scores compared to their experiences in mixed-ability grouping. While this study found increases in test scores and positive attitudes, ability grouping creates a learning gap between higher and lower ability groups. Therefore, educators should consider the benefits and drawbacks before implementing ability grouping.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mani Wangdi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Towards Inclusive Education in Bhutan: Addressing Policy and Practice Gaps in Reintegrating Out-of-School Children with Disabilities
This study conducted a situational analysis of out-of-school children with disabilities (OOSCD) and children at risk of dropping out in two public schools in the capital city of Bhutan. The study intended to develop innovative educational intervention programmes in reintegrating OOSCD into the education system. In identifying OOSCD, the study sought support from two schools, civil society organisations (CSOs) that support disability, parents of children with disabilities, the district education office and the Ministry of Education and Skills Development (MoESD). Focus group interviews conducted with programme officers of MoESD (n=2), district education officers (n=3), school principals (n=5), special educational needs coordinators (n=4), and parents (n=17) revealed multiple barriers that contribute to children with disabilities leaving school. These barriers extend beyond the school and classroom environments. The findings from this situational analysis have implications for the reintegrating of OOSCD and the retention of those at risk of dropping out.
Copyright (c) 2025 Karma Jigyel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0